Adze. A ground stone tool hafted to a wooden handle (later, adzes were made of metal); Native Americans used an adze to chisel, shape, and smooth a large piece of wood (like a tree trunk) by knocking off small bits of wood.

Aggrading. This term means that the slope of the streambed (gradient) of the Illinois River is getting steeper because of sedimentation.

Alluvium. A general term for clay, silt, sand, gravel, or similar unconsolidated detrital material (loose grains of minerals or rocks), carried along by flowing water and deposited during comparatively recent geologic time.

Ammonia nitrogen. NH₃ is an inorganic form of nitrogen. The IEPA water quality standards for ammonia are complex. Total ammonia nitrogen must not exceed 15 mg/L. Beyond this, there are equations given to calculate acute and chronic concentrations of total ammonia using temperature and pH. The results are compared to standards established for acute 30-day and 4-day averages.

amsl. An abbreviation for “above mean sea level”. It is used to reference a location’s height above (or below) sea level.

Apex. The highest point or most successful part of something, such as a building or cultural period.

Artifact. Artifacts are anything used or manufactured by humans, including both material objects such as tools, clothing, and architecture. and non-material products of human cultural behavior such as kinship, political organizations, and religions.

Atlatl. The Aztec (Nahuatl) word for an elongated, hand-held tool made of wood or bone that was used to throw a spear or dart. Atlatls were used long before the bow and arrow. The spear shaft is aligned with the atlatl and rests on top of it. Thus aligned, the back end of the atlatl hooks into a spear and the forward end is held in your hand with your fingers gripping the spear shaft. Holding the atlatl and spear assembly over your shoulder, you fling your arm forward to propel the spear toward a target (in the manner of a pitcher or a quarterback throwing a ball). Thus, the atlatl becomes an extension of your own arm and provides more leverage, which allows you to throw the spear farther than if you used only your arm.

Awl. A pointed tool used to make a hole in material such as hide, wood, clay. Early Native Americans made awls from animal bone, deer antler, copper, or stone; but after contact with Europeans, Native Americans made awls from pieces of iron.

Baconian. Refers to the philosophy of an Englishman named Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626). The Baconian Method was an early method of scientific inquiry, in which limited, specific observations of a particular phenomenon were inferred to be true for a general proposition. Induction is juxtaposed to “deduction” in which a conclusion is based on observation, but the conclusion applies only to the phenomenon observed and is not to be generalized to other phenomena. Both induction and deduction are used in the modern scientific method, whereby a conclusion is based on observed evidence rather than on things that a person believes. In an attempt to avoid personal bias, the scientific method investigates a problem by following a procedure of: 1) preliminary observation and hypothesis formulation (induction); 2) observation; and 3) conclusion (deduction). Using the scientific method to investigate a topic or a problem, you might follow these steps:
1. identify a problem or a topic to study
2. make some preliminary observations and ask a question about the problem
3. form an hypothesis (an idea about cause and effect) that might answer your question and that perhaps explains other topics
4. devise ways or experiments to test your hypothesis
5. collect data from your tests
6. analyze the data
7. reach a conclusion by either confirming or rejecting your hypothesis

Bank erosion. The loss of soil from a riverbank, usually caused by moving water, especially when a riverbank lacks adequate vegetation to restrict erosion. Bank erosion creates sedimentation, a form on non-point source pollution. A river’s own current is a natural cause of bank erosion, but human activities cause most of the large-scale soil loss. Examples include:
1. water runoff from farm fields located too close to a river bank (this also results is a loss of rich soils from farm fields)
2. wave action produced by passing boats (large and/or fast boats make the biggest waves, and thus cause the most erosion).

Biface. A piece of stone that has had multiple flakes removed from two sides that are parallel to one another or converge at a tip or point. Biface is a term that applies to many tool types; for example, a spear point is a type of biface. Native Americans removed flakes by striking the raw material repeatedly with a flaking tool (typically made of bone, antler, or copper).

Biological oxygen demand-5. BOD-5 can be defined in a number of ways:
- A standard test for measuring the amount of dissolved oxygen utilized by aquatic microorganisms
- A measure of the amount of oxygen consumed in the biological processes that break down organic matter in water. BOD is used as an indirect measure of the concentration of biologically degradable material present in organic wastes. It usually reflects the amount of oxygen consumed in five days by biological processes breaking down organic waste. BOD can also be used as an indicator of pollutant level, where the greater the BOD, the greater the degree of pollution. There are no water quality standards for BOD levels in streams; although there are effluent standards which apply to treated wastewater that is discharged into streams. BOD is measured in milligrams per liter.

Bottomland. The low-lying land along a river, periodically covered by floodwaters, that deposits layers of sand, silt, and mud. Sometimes called a floodplain, it usually has rich soil, desirable as farmland.

Brownfield. Under utilized or abandoned property with known or perceived environmental contamination usually associated with past industrial or waste disposal activities.

Busk. A flat, stiff plank made of wood, iron, or ivory used to reinforce the front of a woman’s dress.

Bustard. A word in use by early settlers to describe Canada geese.

Cartographer. Mapmaker.

Cede. To surrender formal ownership or control of land or other resources to another party, as in the cession of land by treaty.

Celt. A long, thin, wedge-shaped tool made of stone or metal that was hafted to a wood handle; it was used like an axe to chop or cut material (an axe has a groove around the larger, non-wedge-shaped end, but a celt is not grooved). Often used to cut or chop wood, the celt could also used as a weapon.

Chert. A type of sedimentary rock that occurs as nodules in limestone. Chert contains silica and is very hard, fine-grained, and fractures (breaks) somewhat predictably. Because of these qualities, Native Americans flaked (chipped) chert to make tools (scrapers, bifaces, knives, spear points, arrowheads). Flint is a form of chert.

Clovis point. Perhaps the earliest point type developed in North America. It was used by Paleoindians between 11,500-10,800 years ago to kill large game animals such mastodons, mammoths, and the ancient bison (megafauna). Clovis points (there are many variations) are bifacially flaked spear points that range in length from 24mm-150 mm (about 1 inch to nearly 6 inches). Clovis points have had a small, longitudinal flake removed from about the lower third of each face, starting at the basal edge. The area where the flake was removed is called a “flute”. The Folsom point is also fluted but is shorter in overall length (approximately 1½-2½ inches), and its flute is relatively longer, extending from the base nearly to the tip of the point.

Codify. To organize into a code or system, such as a body of law; to recodify is to pass a body of law to replace an existing one. As an example, the Rivers and Harbors Act was first passed in 1896 and then rewritten and passed again in 1899.

Cross-bedding. Deposition of sediments in angled layers; the layers dip down in the direction that the current flowed or the wind blew.

Crysipelas. A contagious disease known since the Middle Ages. The name “crysipelas” was applied to a multitude of conditions (including shingles) in which the skin was reddened and inflamed. Hence, its more colorful names like “holy fire”, “St. Anthony’s Fire”, “rose-in-the-leg”, and “black-tongue”. Often written as “crysipelas” in early historical accounts, the name commonly used now is erysipelas. There is an erysipelas that infects turkey and swine, but it is caused by different bacteria. Hog cholera (swine fever) is also called erysipelas. Through modern medicine, we know that erysipelas in humans is caused by various streptococci bacteria, which infect the skin and spread through the lymph system. Once far more common than now, the incidence of erysipelas/crysipelas among humans has probably declined due to the improved sanitation and the use of antibiotics.

Degrees of tolerance.

• Intolerant – organisms whose life cycle is dependent on a narrow range of environmental conditions. These are rarely found in polluted or degraded waters and are typically replaced by more tolerant species when conditions decline in quality;
• Moderate – organisms that lack the extreme sensitivity to stress as shown by intolerant species but cannot adapt to severe environmental degradation;
• Facultative – organisms that are able to survive over a wide range of environmental conditions and possess a greater degree of tolerance to adverse conditions than the first two groups. This category also includes all species that depend on surface air for respiration; and
• Tolerant – organisms that not only have the ability to survive over a wide range of environmental extremes, but can thrive in waters of poor water quality, sometimes even under anaerobic conditions. These organisms are often found in large numbers in areas of organic pollution.

Dissolved oxygen. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen (O₂) dissolved in the water. Dissolved oxygen is one of the best indicators of water quality. The amount of dissolved oxygen that the water can hold depends on the temperature and salinity of the water. Cold water can hold more dissolved oxygen than warm water and fresh water can hold more dissolved oxygen than salt water. Dissolved oxygen measurements are given as a percent of saturation (%) or in units of milligrams per liter (mg/l). IEPA has established minimum standards for dissolved oxygen. If DO levels fall below these levels, it violates water quality regulations and poses a risk to aquatic resources.
General Use Waterway Standard - 5.0 mg/l minimum
Secondary Contact & Indigenous Aquatic Life - 4.0 mg/l minimum

Drainage districts. In Illinois, drainage districts are political bodies or entities created and empowered by the 1955 Illinois Drainage Code. Drainage districts are authorized to construct, maintain, or repair drains or levees or engage in other drainage or levee work for agricultural, sanitary, or mining purposes. Examples include ditches, tiles, levees, and pumps.

Dredge and fill. The activity of digging and depositing materials from and into surface waters, such as wetlands, lakes, or streams. For more than 30 years, implementation of the Clean Water Act has sought to “restore the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters”. In order to protect the water quality of surface waters and the living organisms that inhabit them, state and federal governments regulate dredge and fill activities. Thus, any individual, business or government agency wanting to do construction in floodways or public bodies of water must apply for a permit. Through the permitting process, the government attempts to protect water - especially wetlands - from negative alteration, degradation, and chemical pollution. Unfortunately, the Bush administration has issued new guidelines that will leave about 20 million acres of isolated wetland (equaling 20%) acres without the protection of the Clean Water Act; and estimated 150,000 of these acres are Illinois wetlands.

Ecosystem. A natural system in which energy and nutrients cycle between plants, animals, and their environment.

End moraine. A ridge of rock material (called “glacial drift” or “till”) that accumulates at the edge of a glacier as the glacier melts and retreats.

Entomologist. A scientist who studies insects.

Environmental quality.

• Balanced Environment: Intolerant organisms are abundant in number and species. Intolerant present > 50% Moderate, Facultative and Tolerant usually present < 50%
• Unbalanced Environment: Intolerant organisms are less in number than other, but combined with moderate organisms, outnumber those tolerant. Intolerant present < 50% Moderate, Facultative, and Tolerant usually present > 50%
• Semi-polluted Environment: Intolerant organisms are few or none; moderate and/or facultative individuals are present. Intolerant present < 10% Moderate, Facultative and Tolerant usually present > 90%
• Polluted Environment: Intolerant species do not exist; only tolerant organisms or no organisms present. Tolerant present =100%

Erosional remnant. A landform left behind after an episode of erosion; for example, the Kankakee Torrent left erosional remnants after its huge influx of fast-moving water rushed across the landscape.

Estuarine zone. A zone or area where the saltwater and freshwater mix, creating a unique and highly productive habitat. As a rule, any ecotonal zone (an area where two different types of habitat meet) is a unique environment with high productivity, which tends to support higher species diversity that is found in either habitat, alone.

Estuary. An area where fresh river water mixes with seawater.

Ethnography. The systematic description of the culture of a contemporary group based on observation of how they live and behave.

Flaking. Flaking is part of the process of making a chipped stone tool. It is done by hitting a piece of stone with another tool (such as a piece of antler, bone, ground stone, or copper) to remove small flakes of stone. By removing flake after flake, the maker creates a tool of a planned shape.

Floodplain. The land along a river covered by water during a flood.

Folsom point. One of the oldest types of bifacially flaked spear points that developed after the Clovis point. It was used by Paleoindians between 11,300-8,000 years ago to kill large game animals such as mastodons, mammoths, and the ancient bison megafauna). Folsom points are approximately 1½-2½ inches long and have a longitudinal flake removed from each face. The area where the flake was removed is called a “flute”. The flute on a Folsom point covers most of the area of the spear point, from its base to nearly its tip. Clovis points are also fluted but are usually much larger than Folsom points.

Glacier. A thick sheet of ice that covers a large area of land and does not disappear during the warmer months of the year. A glacial mass is the result of snow and ice that accumulate year after year because the summers are cold enough that each year’s snowfall does not totally melt. The most recent glaciation in North America is called the Wisconsin (it lasted from 40,000 to 12,000 years ago). Glaciers were up to 700 feet thick in the state of Illinois.

Gorget. An ornament worn hanging around the neck as a badge of office or an emblem of one’s status within the community.

Gristmill. A building where grain (grist), such as corn, wheat, oats, or rye, was ground between two large, circular-shaped milling stones to produce meal or flour. The stones were so large and heavy that the power to turn them was supplied by livestock walking in a circle, by a water wheel (if the mill was next to a river or other water source), occasionally by wind power, and later by steam power. The miller collected a toll (usually a portion of the grain) for his service to grind a farmer’s grain into meal. It was not feasible for every family to have its own mill. Thus, gristmills were important for the settlement and economy of rural America and also as community gathering places.

Ground moraine. A gently rolling landform composed of rock debris (called “drift” or “till”) deposited beneath a glacier.

Ground stone tool. A stone tool made by abrading, grinding, and polishing, as opposed to flaking. Adzes and plummets are types of ground stone tools.

Horticulture. Hand cultivation of plants in small gardens with the use of digging sticks and hoes.

Illinois Waterway. Name used for the modified Illinois River. Modifications (such as levees, locks, dams, canals, and dredging) created a waterway that connected Lake Michigan to the Mississippi River. Connecting to the Mississippi River meant that goods could be shipped between the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico.

Invasive species. Any living organism (like a plant or animal) that is not native to the ecosystem under consideration. Invasive species may also be called “exotic” or “foreign”. They are defined as “pests” or “beneficial” with reference to their effect on humans. Pests are those species that damage the human economy and/or that negatively impact our native species. Examples of pests are the Asian longhorned beetle (responsible for killing thousands of tree), the zebra mussel (attaches to anything and everything in the water including native mussels and water intake equipment), and the silver carp (out competes and out populates Illinois native fish species). Some invasive species are beneficial because they help humans economically. Examples are the honeybee (like all bee species, honeybees pollinate plants and produces an excess of honey that can be harvested) and the Chinese mantid (eats other insects). Invasive species are more successful than native species because they have neither natural enemies nor diseases in their newfound territory; they are also able to survive in a wider niche than native species, which avoid overlap and competition with other species by utilizing a narrow ecological niche in terms of food, habitat, or geographic range.

Kankakee Torrent. This cataclysmic event occurred about 17,000 years ago. Melt waters from the Wisconsinan Glacier to the north raised water levels so rapidly around what is now Lake Michigan that the water overtopped the moraines to the south. A lobe of the glacier also may have broken off, contributing to the rapid rise of the water. The water burst through the natural “dam” formed by the end moraines and carved the channel of the Illinois River.

Keelboat. A type of shallow riverboat with a keel (a board that runs along the bottom of a boat’s hull, down the midline, from one end to the other) but no sails. Keelboats are moved by rowing, towing, or punting (pushing with a pole).

League. A measurement of distance equivalent to about 3 miles.

Lifeway. The pattern of culture; how a society is organized and functions including its settlement pattern, population composition and density, technology, economy, organization of domestic life, kinship system, social organization, religion, and art.

Megafauna. Very large mammals especially in the last Ice Age or Pleistocene. These animals are now extinct and include mammoths, mastodons, giant sloths, giant beaver, short-faced cave bears, ancient bison, American lions, American camels, and saber-toothed cats.

Midden. An accumulation of trash, in a mound or scattered over an area, that results from human activities. A midden generally contains soil, food remains such as animal bone, shell, and plant remnants, and discarded artifacts and debris from the manufacture of artifacts.

Moraine. An accumulation of earth, boulders, stones, or other debris carried and deposited by a glacier. An ‘end moraine’, either a ridge or low hill running perpendicular to the direction of ice movement, forms at the end of a glacier when the ice is melting.

Mussel. A type of shellfish that has a shell made of two parts (called valves), hence the name bivalve. Marine mussels live in saltwater, and freshwater mussels (family Unionidae) live in freshwater such as the Illinois River. Mussels are filter feeders that feed on plankton (microscopic organisms). Native mussels are negatively impacted by polluted water and by zebra mussels. The zebra mussel is an invasive species native to Russia that was first discovered in 1988. In only three years, they had spread throughout the Great Lakes and entered inland waterways. Zebra mussels are decimating native populations of freshwater mussels, and their large colonies are clogging water intake and discharge structures built by humans (economically their damage is in the billions of dollars).